Constitutional Convention (Chapter 3)

Experiencing scenarios for the first time are, by nature, a trial and error type of subject. If you fail or find yourself in a losing position, more often than not, it will be perceived as a learning experience and enhance future situations similar to it. However, there are other topics, other places in which failure is too detrimental to be an option. The creation of the constitution was exactly this for the American delegates in 1787. The constitutional convention was a mission to rescue and hopefully edify the government, thought by them to be failing, as effectively as it was possible. And, as obvious as circumstances like this may indicate, the journey to the constitution was not an easy one. The convention was divided, congresses had to be created, federalists and anti-federalists’ conflict became a large issue; making delegates skeptical about approving the ideas for their new government. But ultimately, convinced enough, and created the pathway to a new nation.

A crucial individual to this period, famously known as the Father of the Constitution is James Madison. Madison believed in the cynic nature of humans, yet he was hopeful in the purpose and need for a stable government. He assisted every meeting the convention held- constantly and very vocally expressing his ideas, thoughts, and critique. Him and fellow thinkers brought upon the Virginia Plan.

As nearly any topic of interest in the world, the convention became divided. The biggest division being that between the supporters of the Virginia Plan and the supporters of the New Jersey Plan. The Virginia Plan called for the creation of a bicameral legislature, representatives in proportion to the number of citizens in the states, executive and judicial branches, and government’s right to tax and veto – all of these majorly favoring larger states. This led the smaller sized states to propose the alternative, the New Jersey Plan. This plan would give congress the power to tax, the creation of executive and judicial branches, and equal number of representatives, and a unicameral congress. Clearly, their differences were concrete – which terminated in the Great Compromise. A compromise between the two plans that consisted of two houses that made up a legislative branch – one that had equal number of representatives per state (House of Representatives) and the other that based the number of representatives off they population number (Senate). The compromise also addressed slave involvement as somewhat relevant in the Three-Fifths Compromise.

It was then settled that the constitution called for a separation of powers, which led to the system of checks and balances. The system allowed for a government that both preserved and limited popular sovereignty. The legislative, judicial, and executive branches sustained and controlled each other. They went further and created the electoral college - a meeting of electors in which a vote would be made to decide who the president would be – settling democracy even more.

The constitution had both supporters and opponents. The supporters went by the name of federalists, while their contrasts were the anti-federalists. The leaders of the federalists included Washington and Hamilton. The federalists believed that the federal government would work as a government by the people and for the people – one that was strong and energetic as the citizens required. The anti-federalists were against the creation of a government, for they considered this authority a copy of the monarchy they had to endure before their independence.

The tedious job of perfecting and creating a congress to rule a new nation and its people was not something that took a quick instant. The convention was long, it had its various arguments on different areas of the laws and regulations that were to put in. From the different suggested plans to the federalists and anti-federalists, creating the constitution was a challenge. A challenge that was finally worth it and appropriate for the United States.

                                  

James Madison, the father of the constitution.

                

American Revolution (Chapter 2)

The American Revolution

By: Sachi Kameishi

           

Independence, freedom, and rights – all privileges, for lack of a better word, that every human being should be able to own. Sounds like a rather blatantly  obvious statement, doesn’t it? At least in our modern world, a lack of independence is indicative of a lack of justice and morality and ever present bigotry. In the past, colonialism could very much be synonymous with this. Some were oblivious to this, due to the cynical nature of one being, in this case nation, superior to another. However, oppressed voices never quite fall in invisibility. The American Revolution and the War for Independence are archetypes of this fact. Fueled by sundry causes against the British, the colonialists lashed out and began their historic fight for freedom. Once free, however, their new republic, their new states, how to guide them – would prove an even bigger task than that of gaining their independence.

            The thirteen British colonies of America were subject to the “Mother country’s” every command. As a British colony these all received protection from the crown, as seen in the 7 Years War. However, this was massively overshadowed by the preposterous British economic and political abuse endured by the states. Examples of Acts and Laws passed by the British King George III that stirred the people in a foreplay manner for the upcoming revolution are the following: The Stamp Act, the Quartering Act, the Townshend Duties, the Tea Act, and the Port Bill. All of these including heavy taxation and patronizing towards the colonies. These encouraged a sense of unity against the British rule, the spread of democratic ideas, rebellion and congresses, held to discuss options; and the most crucial patriotic congress, being the Continental Congress, lead to the zenith of actions taken to become separated from the crown: the Declaration of Independence written by Thomas Jefferson, who brilliantly connected their need for freedom with the basic, innate rights of man. July 4^th, all 13 colonies accepted this document’s validity and officially became the United States of America in their own eyes, for it still had to be won.

            The War for Independence holds an amount of characteristics that make it very relevant. There’s the fact that it took eight violent years to cut ties with the British, which makes it the second longest war in the history of the United States. As well as the fact that the population in the colonies were very much divided in who to support – estimated that one third were Patriots, one third were Loyalists, and one third were neither. The Patriots also searched for military support overseas from nations who had Britain as a common enemy – France and Germany. Individuals such as French officer Marquis de Lafayette, Prussian officer Baron Von Steuben and the armies of thousands of men they carried were crucial for the States’ troops’ organization, training, and ultimately, their victory.

            Once becoming the United States officially, government was something they were yet to settle. In fact, back then, they believed that the nation as a whole was less important than its thirteen parts. It was not a nation as much as it was a confederation, or an alliance of states. Moving quickly to create organization in the colonies, the Continental Congress created a set of laws called the Articles of Confederation. These articles combined the functions of a legislative and executive branch, for they passed laws and made sure to keep them steady by enforcing them. However and naturally given the context of their history, problems arose with these articles. Some of these being: regardless of the state’s size they only had one vote, the congress was powerless to impose taxes or duties, no separate executive to enforce acts of congress, no national court system to interpret laws, and amendment only with consent of all the states. Furthermore, the representatives served in a unicameral legislature – in which there is only one house or group of representatives. Giving no balance to the power as there would in a bicameral legislature. This created tension between Nationalists and those in favor of the articles, for there was no real way to fathom a free nation with a general, central power.

            Achieving a sovereign, independent nation was something that was probably not even in the range of possibilities of most then-Americans. However, it took a few events to trigger that nationalism, that desire for change and recognition of what they all knew they deserved. Through physical and mental strive and motivation, they made it. And once having it, they had to ponder upon the fact that they had to find a way to be united – to survive on their own. This, as well, brought upon conflict, conflict that took time to be resolved. However, their journey to becoming one of the most powerful nations in the world had commenced, but was still underway.

John Adams, one of the leaders of the Revolution. 

The Aftermath of the Colonization (Chapter 1)

            The European colonization of America was, and still is, one of the most relevant and condition-altering events. However, most focus on the aftermath of the colonizers’ arrival; not enough on the situation of the societies involved previous to it or the early settlement days. By neglecting this, valuable information and events are ignored as well. For prior to the colonies, the American, African, and European worlds were doing rather well and striving within each of their own environments. History then proceeds to their colliding, then to colonization, and then a series of events that served as obstacles to the European’s arrival and settling.

            Commencing this event’s history, there are those who were living in America. As vast as the list of Native American societies is, it may be surprising to know that these all share similar core values and fundamental behavior. Some of these characteristics involved the following: social needs fulfilled through family, extended kinship networks, fate decided by the doing (or not doing) of traditional rituals, and the belief that people were entitled to use land but never to own it. Native Americans also understood the benefit of trade, not only referring to the direct gain of product, but also the underlying present of hospitality and friendliness between different groups.

            Next, of course, is the European society. The European nations were organized in a system of duties and exchanges based on land, war, and tradition. In other words, feudalism was the basis for their society. The success behind feudalism also lies on the support it received from religion, which was mainly Christian at the time. Religion, in fact, also stands behind the fact that Europeans were so very obsessed with exotic items and produce; after the Europeans involved with the Crusades brought home Asian products, the European demand for these grew rapidly. This led to the creation of jobs such as merchants and craftspeople – however, unlike Native Americans; trade for Europeans was nothing more than an exchange, not a tie to social obligations to others. This fascination and desire for Asian produce led to the Age of Discovery, whose main purpose was to find a faster route to the Asian territory. Instead, America was discovered by them.

            And finally, the African Kingdoms. In Africa, in the north of the Congo River, was a long swath called Guinea – this was the center of all trade between Europeans and Africans. In Guinea, there was a lineage that was the ruling class. Most societies were made up of people who lived in towns and supported themselves primarily through farming. Again, most people in Guinea belonged to the same lineage. However, the groups in Guinea varied their religious beliefs – yet they all generally coincided on the existence of one Supreme being and other, lesser powerful, deities. Also, they believed in the existence of spirits before and after the decease of a person. And then there was the Empire of Songhai, one of the largest at the time situated in the Sahara. Traders could find gold and ivory from the forest kingdoms, also salt, cloth, weapons, horses, and books. And another good Europeans collected from Africa were human slaves, however this type of slavery was far more humane than the one practiced in years to come, in fact, some slaves saw it as a productive opportunity.

            As said before the collision of these cultures increased the desire for trade and faster ways for their transfer to Europe. When America was find looking for one of these new, more efficient pathways, Europeans decided to commence colonies and send settlements to these areas. However, things were not going to go smoothly. The Spanish, for example, found resistance from New Mexican Native Americans in the Revolt of 1680, which was won by the Native Americans – however, the Spanish returned. Yet, not all was in vain, for the return of the Spanish was established on a commitment that favored both the Spanish and the Pueblo inhabitants equally. Another resistance the European settlers confronted was the Native American community in Chesapaeke Bay, which also ended in a compromise between the two sides.

            These colonies also witnessed the beginning of Tobacco plantations and colonies placed in Virginia to work the fields – of course, those who worked the fields were the slaves. Slaves first arrived at these colonies during the year 1907. Also, the presence of Puritans and their conflict with King Phillip was quite a rumble – for the Puritans were making the land of America far too different to what Phillip wanted – very negatively so. SO, Phillip rallied up Native Americans to fight against the Puritans and protect that land. However, after plenty of casualties and historic bloodshed, the Puritans won. Which is also connected with religious conflict between the colonies.

The three societies described had a role in the colonization of America and its success. However, the results and events that followed it did not have such a smooth and well-constructed nature. Events such as slavery, conflicting settlements with natives, and settlements versus England prove it so. Yet, without them, there wouldn’t be half as much history as there is.
The Revolt of 1860