Constitutional Convention (Chapter 3)

Experiencing scenarios for the first time are, by nature, a trial and error type of subject. If you fail or find yourself in a losing position, more often than not, it will be perceived as a learning experience and enhance future situations similar to it. However, there are other topics, other places in which failure is too detrimental to be an option. The creation of the constitution was exactly this for the American delegates in 1787. The constitutional convention was a mission to rescue and hopefully edify the government, thought by them to be failing, as effectively as it was possible. And, as obvious as circumstances like this may indicate, the journey to the constitution was not an easy one. The convention was divided, congresses had to be created, federalists and anti-federalists’ conflict became a large issue; making delegates skeptical about approving the ideas for their new government. But ultimately, convinced enough, and created the pathway to a new nation.

A crucial individual to this period, famously known as the Father of the Constitution is James Madison. Madison believed in the cynic nature of humans, yet he was hopeful in the purpose and need for a stable government. He assisted every meeting the convention held- constantly and very vocally expressing his ideas, thoughts, and critique. Him and fellow thinkers brought upon the Virginia Plan.

As nearly any topic of interest in the world, the convention became divided. The biggest division being that between the supporters of the Virginia Plan and the supporters of the New Jersey Plan. The Virginia Plan called for the creation of a bicameral legislature, representatives in proportion to the number of citizens in the states, executive and judicial branches, and government’s right to tax and veto – all of these majorly favoring larger states. This led the smaller sized states to propose the alternative, the New Jersey Plan. This plan would give congress the power to tax, the creation of executive and judicial branches, and equal number of representatives, and a unicameral congress. Clearly, their differences were concrete – which terminated in the Great Compromise. A compromise between the two plans that consisted of two houses that made up a legislative branch – one that had equal number of representatives per state (House of Representatives) and the other that based the number of representatives off they population number (Senate). The compromise also addressed slave involvement as somewhat relevant in the Three-Fifths Compromise.

It was then settled that the constitution called for a separation of powers, which led to the system of checks and balances. The system allowed for a government that both preserved and limited popular sovereignty. The legislative, judicial, and executive branches sustained and controlled each other. They went further and created the electoral college - a meeting of electors in which a vote would be made to decide who the president would be – settling democracy even more.

The constitution had both supporters and opponents. The supporters went by the name of federalists, while their contrasts were the anti-federalists. The leaders of the federalists included Washington and Hamilton. The federalists believed that the federal government would work as a government by the people and for the people – one that was strong and energetic as the citizens required. The anti-federalists were against the creation of a government, for they considered this authority a copy of the monarchy they had to endure before their independence.

The tedious job of perfecting and creating a congress to rule a new nation and its people was not something that took a quick instant. The convention was long, it had its various arguments on different areas of the laws and regulations that were to put in. From the different suggested plans to the federalists and anti-federalists, creating the constitution was a challenge. A challenge that was finally worth it and appropriate for the United States.

                                  

James Madison, the father of the constitution.

                

American Revolution (Chapter 2)

The American Revolution

By: Sachi Kameishi

           

Independence, freedom, and rights – all privileges, for lack of a better word, that every human being should be able to own. Sounds like a rather blatantly  obvious statement, doesn’t it? At least in our modern world, a lack of independence is indicative of a lack of justice and morality and ever present bigotry. In the past, colonialism could very much be synonymous with this. Some were oblivious to this, due to the cynical nature of one being, in this case nation, superior to another. However, oppressed voices never quite fall in invisibility. The American Revolution and the War for Independence are archetypes of this fact. Fueled by sundry causes against the British, the colonialists lashed out and began their historic fight for freedom. Once free, however, their new republic, their new states, how to guide them – would prove an even bigger task than that of gaining their independence.

            The thirteen British colonies of America were subject to the “Mother country’s” every command. As a British colony these all received protection from the crown, as seen in the 7 Years War. However, this was massively overshadowed by the preposterous British economic and political abuse endured by the states. Examples of Acts and Laws passed by the British King George III that stirred the people in a foreplay manner for the upcoming revolution are the following: The Stamp Act, the Quartering Act, the Townshend Duties, the Tea Act, and the Port Bill. All of these including heavy taxation and patronizing towards the colonies. These encouraged a sense of unity against the British rule, the spread of democratic ideas, rebellion and congresses, held to discuss options; and the most crucial patriotic congress, being the Continental Congress, lead to the zenith of actions taken to become separated from the crown: the Declaration of Independence written by Thomas Jefferson, who brilliantly connected their need for freedom with the basic, innate rights of man. July 4^th, all 13 colonies accepted this document’s validity and officially became the United States of America in their own eyes, for it still had to be won.

            The War for Independence holds an amount of characteristics that make it very relevant. There’s the fact that it took eight violent years to cut ties with the British, which makes it the second longest war in the history of the United States. As well as the fact that the population in the colonies were very much divided in who to support – estimated that one third were Patriots, one third were Loyalists, and one third were neither. The Patriots also searched for military support overseas from nations who had Britain as a common enemy – France and Germany. Individuals such as French officer Marquis de Lafayette, Prussian officer Baron Von Steuben and the armies of thousands of men they carried were crucial for the States’ troops’ organization, training, and ultimately, their victory.

            Once becoming the United States officially, government was something they were yet to settle. In fact, back then, they believed that the nation as a whole was less important than its thirteen parts. It was not a nation as much as it was a confederation, or an alliance of states. Moving quickly to create organization in the colonies, the Continental Congress created a set of laws called the Articles of Confederation. These articles combined the functions of a legislative and executive branch, for they passed laws and made sure to keep them steady by enforcing them. However and naturally given the context of their history, problems arose with these articles. Some of these being: regardless of the state’s size they only had one vote, the congress was powerless to impose taxes or duties, no separate executive to enforce acts of congress, no national court system to interpret laws, and amendment only with consent of all the states. Furthermore, the representatives served in a unicameral legislature – in which there is only one house or group of representatives. Giving no balance to the power as there would in a bicameral legislature. This created tension between Nationalists and those in favor of the articles, for there was no real way to fathom a free nation with a general, central power.

            Achieving a sovereign, independent nation was something that was probably not even in the range of possibilities of most then-Americans. However, it took a few events to trigger that nationalism, that desire for change and recognition of what they all knew they deserved. Through physical and mental strive and motivation, they made it. And once having it, they had to ponder upon the fact that they had to find a way to be united – to survive on their own. This, as well, brought upon conflict, conflict that took time to be resolved. However, their journey to becoming one of the most powerful nations in the world had commenced, but was still underway.

John Adams, one of the leaders of the Revolution.