The Era of Progressive Reform (Chapter 10) Reflection

It has been proven time and time again that it is the spirit of the people that can move a nation. A government is nothing without its citizens, a leader nothing with its followers. The United States was going through issues concerning their urbanization and industrialization – problems that not even the government knew how to fix correctly. Soon, however, there was a change in mentality, the progressive reform had arrived. Being an informal and unlikely conglomeration of alliances, progressivism reformed more than the government had in the last few years. Their actions being responsible for results such as the women’s right to vote.

            Progressives recognized that the nation’s free enterprise system often was unfair, but they didn’t want to lose the high standard of living and liberty it had given them. They had to reform the bad without changing the good. What was interesting about progressivism was that its members didn’t always share the exact same set of ideas or mentalities, but they were prone to using the same methods to fulfill them; methods such as mass-circulation publication and journalists – gaining grass support, pressuring officials.

            The progressive reforms took place at urban, state, and federal levels. This movement had spread to the point in which they found allies in unlikely political machines. They reformed the workplace, environment, and prohibition. Progressivism is closely linked to the ideologies of the democratic power, something President William Taft was very much in favor of, until the Republicans convinced him otherwise. Roosevelt soon abandoned him for this and created the Progressive party: the Bull Moose Party. The next president Wilson carried on this mentality, until World War 1 took place.

            One of progressivism’s greatest victories was women’s suffrage. This had been a quest taken place for over seventy years. Even though it took great effort, inner campaign conflicts for strategies, and definite resistance, in 1920 they were given the right to vote. Women were finally begun to be seen as higher than just second class citizens.

            Progressivism commenced as a mentality, a set of ideals with hopes of perhaps someday creating something. This democratic mentality spread like wild fire, initiating movement throughout the entire US territory and not failing to bring change. Politically, economically but, most importantly and as evidenced with their gaining of women’s suffrage, socially.

Roosevelt's Bull Moose Party also known as the Progressive Party. 

Becoming A World Power (Chapter 9)

Seems like the United States’ presence is found everywhere. Its status as a world power is certainly not something overstated. Their politics, economy, and social welfare are a concern for nearly every nation for, in one way or another, they are dependent on them. This all began in the 1890’s, with the mere reason of a nation producing more than they needed and soon broadening their chances. They began to pursue new international markets; through this the United States consolidated its place and power in the systematic functioning of the world. However, the behavior that the United States was presenting seemed all too familiar to some of its citizens. They were apprehensive, for the desire to become involved and supervising of other countries was an approach that they had to endure whilst being a colony. The danger of the US becoming or attempting to become a colonial power was something they couldn’t condone.

            The overproduction of agricultural as well as industrial goods in the United States placed a very large stress in its economy and motivated the creation of a foreign market. Coincidentally, this need to expand economically occurred at a time in which the major European powers were, as well, attempting to seize new territories around the globe. They were eager to join this chain of events. Citizens in favor of the expansion argued with Darwinist’s perspectives – claiming to be the most-favored nation, and the excuse of the survival of the fittest. Those against had a simple rebuttal: the fact that the economic expansion could bring about the risk of foreign entanglements.

            To give themselves advantage in Latin American lands, the United States created the Monroe Doctrine – which stated the their country was to be involved in whatever matters or issues may arise. This took the European chances within that territory and meshed them in the ground. The US took advantage of various incidents in Latin America to reaffirm the validity of the Monroe Doctrine, the Cuban Rebellion being an example. In fact, this particular rebellion in conjunction with the pressure to expand led to the Spanish-American War. As this war occurred, they were intervening in other parts of the Pacific; changing relationships with Hawaii, Somoa, and China – bringing upon territory and influence in their favor.

            Theodore Roosevelt is one of the main minds behind the US’ foreign policies. His involvement in these matters increased the power in his presidency. Under his command, he secured a strip of land in Panama on which he built the canal linking the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. He also asserted the right of the US to use military forces to preserve peace in any neighboring nations. Roosevelt was forceful and nearly right handed when it came to this area of interest, where as his successor President Howard Taft preferred economic pressure than anything such as military forces which was Roosevelt preferred.

            The United States’ expansion was controversial. A large majority encouraged Roosevelt’s decisions, any movement that involved the mentality actions like the Monroe Doctrine were based on. Certainly, these moves were effective. In a short period of time the United States had a say in the behavior and peace-keeping of Latin America and had treaties with Hawaii, China, and the Phillipines. The negative opinions were present as well. The imperialist behavior displayed was something, they said, that went completely against the values upon which the US had been founded. Soon enough, though, the economic benefits, pride in growing power and the search for a new frontier through an economic expansion were far too appealing to the citizens.

Theodore Roosevelt. The main designer of the United States' foreign policy. 

 

Changing Frontiers (Chapter 7)

The expansion within the United States towards the West was not the only growth the nation experienced after the Civil War. An explosion of new ideas led to revolutionary technologies and new standards of living – wealth and urbanization made their way into the United States’ normalcy. However, its repercussions were not only confined in the good and prosperous. Harsh conditions for workers, the gap between the rich and the poor widened tremendously, violent strikes in favor of the workers, the near destruction of Native American tribes for territory, and political corruption accompanied the country in their new, burgeoning years. Progress and movement and all its rewards would come at a price.

                Before the Civil War the ideas of indoor electric lighting, refrigeration, and efficient communications were not something citizens could get themselves to even imagine – a matter soon to be changed after the 1790-1860 flood of ideas and inventions. Investors and business leaders placed their hopes and trust in these, bettering the living standards in the US. As new fuels, transportation methods, railroad systems, and architectural monuments were accomplished, the business industry did too; concepts such as monopolies, cartels, trust, horizontal consolidation, and vertical consolidation incremented the competitive nature as well as business creation. All which lead to the importance of workers.

                Workers suffered tremendously during this time period. Hardships not only affected their physical health, but also their emotional and social wellbeing. Wages were low, treatment was merciless, even children were forced to play a part. This unfair environment lead to the creation of unions – groups made of employees to ensure rightful treatment. Clearly, employers were not in favor if said groups – taking measures such as firing members or contract signing in path of never being involved in such activities. This solved nothing. In 1877 the Railroad Strike triggered multiple uprising throughout the nation. Including the major role of political radicals called anarchists to continue the labor unrest as far as 1892.

                Livelihood in the west wasn’t exactly ideal either. As settlers began to move towards the unconquered lands of the United States greatly thanks to the Morrill Land-Grand and Homestead Act that offered large amounts of lands, they encountered a life they hadn’t faced for decades. It was one filled with difficult work and cooperation; they were building upwards from nothing. Difficulty also lay in the amounts of Native American presence in those lands. The United States settlers were unforgiving with the natives; they brutally removed nearly all their numbers, and commenced a battle between the two races. Even though an agreement was reached, the settlers still had the upper hand, and the Natives had to move on with small areas of land. Farmers took technology with them, technology that would soon lead to reformation of ranching and mining industries. Things declined when tariffs and deflation came into the picture. Farmers had to take measures – populists, those who actively supported the circulation of money, launched new reforms that shifted the course of US history.

                This economic hardship expanded and affected politics, immigration, and urban life. The unfair business practices, the division between democrats and republicans on issues, and ineffective institution of reforms to end corruption were present in politics. While, as immigrants began to become more and more allured to the country, cities expanded. However, this expansion was overpopulated, lacking control and, thus, corrupt. Reforms were made to try to balk illegal immigration and helping the needy through charities.

                Growth in a country is not something that can be utterly controlled and predicted. As much as the results can favor and progress, so can they hurt and digress. The technologies that flourished after the Civil War were extraordinary to say the least – such a development of ideas and creativity had not been witnessed before. However, when it came to business, politics, economy, and worker welfare – well, that had another light. The government tried its best to better situations, and then there were civilians who took matters in their hands and decided to become their own helping hand. Revolts, reforms, poverty, striving; all at once in a nation searching to grow. 

Chinese immigrants arriving to the United States. 

The Civil War (Chapter 6)

The Civil War was nothing short of complex and eventful. It was both sides pressing strategically, legislatively, and geographically. Historic staples such as the War of Waterways, Johnson’s election, Vicksburg, the Emancipation Proclamation, and the Appottamox Courthouse worked hand in hand to give an end to the dispute. But proved to be the antithesis of such – slowly building up the conflict, and furthering its impact. The reconstruction was then another obstacle that the nation had to go through. Both economically and socially, the country was broken – the reformations had to be thought through, for it was a matter of considering the circumstances for race, agriculture, economy, and territory.

            The War of Waterways occurred during the first two years of the Civil War. Here, dispute for the usage of the Mississippi River took place – this landmark would offer travel, artillery sending and a variety of benefits for whoever gained control of it. War officials from the South devised cunning strategies such as the Anaconda Plan and they gained advantages in the War of Attrition by an attack-retreat system. Socially, the Civil War was a theme of amusement, watchers often having picnics as they witnessed live warfare.

            The conflict wasn’t influenced by the people only, the government tried to have its say as well. The Emancipation Proclamation was one of Lincoln’s moves. One in which he promised freedom to any slave who contributed with the fight for freedom. This law took place during and after the war. Government officials of the North all raved about the African American’s soldiering skills – naming them better in any area than any white soldier they could have possible recruited.

            Vicksburg was a crucial point in the war for it gave it the status of “total war,” which meant that the conflict was now something that threatened both sides’ economies and societies. The town of Vicksburg, Mississippi had been an area General Grant from the North had wanted to take over – when he did and chased the Confederates out, the Confederation took it personally.

            The Battle of Gettysburg and the Appottamox Courthouse events both culminated and finalized the war. The battle was won by the North, after General Lee of the South made the irrevocable mistake of placing nearly all his troops forward and placing confidence in the enemy’s lack of artillery. Finding himself defeated, General Lee and General Grant met at Appottamox Courthouse; Lee, representing the Confederation, surrendered to the North.

            The Reconstruction after the war was something difficult for Congress – they had to redefine through acts and amendments what citizenship meant for the United States. To formerly enslaved African Americans, freedom meant the ability to move, organize, educate themselves, own land, and participate in politics. It was a world of opportunities for them, they had been confined by white man’s rule for so long – the doors were finally opening. For the South’s relief, a combination of different groups including Northerners and African Americans provided support for them – proving that the country still stood as a whole. The South’s economy was not lost completely when slavery was made illegal, they were still able to replace it through new forms of enforced labor.

            The bloodshed in the four years of the Civil War was immense, the conflict manifesting in multiple encounters that turned the tables in favor of both sides. The Gettysburg Address, however, marks a victor = the North. What took for this to occur is unmeasurable. The costs, the broken families, military strategies, territorial invasion. But, as well, what good it brought is not easily put into words. Equality burgeoned, the Union was back, and their society was evolving. Proving that, as Lincoln stated during the Gettysburg Address for the fallen soldiers, “the Civil War was a test of whether any nation dedicated to freedom and equality could succeed.” 

General Lee from the South was one of the greatest military minds the world has known. One mistake, though, is what cost him the war. 

Origins of the Civil War (Chapter 5)

The presence of slavery and discrimination is frowned upon by most, if not all, of modern society. The concept of a being placed as lesser or second to another based on the innate physical characteristics of each is preposterous – no one should ever carry the title of “second class citizen;” however, during the 1800’s, this mentality founded and maintained the economy and livelihood of the Southern United States. What would happen when the other half of the union demanded slavery, the sustenance of their economy, to be banned? Would the South succumb to the North’s abolitionist movement and requests? If only. What burgeoned was a product of centuries of buildup that soon erupted into what is known now as the Civil War.

The very beginnings of slavery and its impact and journey throughout the United States’ history occur during the early 1600’s. “Indentured servants” is what they were referred to as, African Americans who paid their services for seven years and were then freed, accompanied by their very own piece of land. However, the ideal and seemingly just nature of this compromise alters – for seven years of work on tobacco fields proved extenuating and, most times, ultimately fatal to the workers. And even if they were capable of surviving their exploitation, the servants were not always given what was promised. As time passed, the abuse slavery conveyed increased. Now, it wasn’t treated as a deal, it was a simple property-owner relationship that drained the slaves until they perished under the conditions. But as the mistreatment increased, so did the angered voices of those mistreated. AS much as they were somewhat included in political decisions as the Three-Fifths Compromise, which gave the enslaved population a count in Congress, proved, other citizen-lead acts did otherwise on a larger scale. The Black Codes exemplify this as they were created on the same year as the Three-Fifths Compromise and these made slavery technically illegal north of the Ohio River, however, whites still owned and stood highly above blacks.

The controversy surrounding whether or not slavery should be allowed became so vociferous and relevant that it led to the division of the nation in what is known as the Missouri Compromise. The compromise separated the United States in anti and pro slavery areas – the North against and the South in favor, also creating a new state named Maine from the North of Missouri to create a fair and proportional count. As much as the division aided in a consolidation of slavery boundaries, those against it didn’t think of it as enough. Here is where the abolition, or anti-slavery movement, begins in the 1820’s. The humanitarian response was huge, yet 36% of the white population owned slaves – making resistance to abolition something to consider. The gag rule is an example of the resistance; this was a law that tabled all anti-slavery petitions. But, as some fought against others were quick and just as stringent when fighting back. The Underground Railroad and founding of Liberia as a land for slaves are some demonstrations of support.

            As the fight against slavery continued to unravel, another event takes place that will influence the presence of a Civil War; this is the Mexican War. Americans started to expand further West in an attempt to claim more territory; they soon reached Mexican territory that is now known as Texas. United States citizens began to flood the area, to the point in which there were more Americans in it than Mexicans. This motivated the Americans to join in an uprising and claim the land as their own; they succeeded. However, an important event within it called the Wilmot Proviso stated that slavery would be illegal in all territory acquitted from Mexico.

The final triggers of the Civil War lie on the differences between North and South, and an important politic action. There was failure to address whether or not slavery would be allowed in territories, something noticeable since slavery’s very beginnings. The North was far more industrialized and advanced than South in nearly every way possible: communication, population, industrialization, urbanization, and income in goods. The South could only compete in manners of enslaved people and cotton – both of which went, very much, hand in hand. What tipped the glass in this entire issue was the Kansas-Nebraska Act. Here, they ignored the Missouri Compromise and decided that a sovereign choice through voting to decide where slavery would be allowed would be more appropriate. The Northerners were outraged, and a desire for a violent resolve between the two sides was imminent.

The Civil War was not something to be considered as a product of a few, shorty separated events. The matter of slavery and its place in society is something that had been battled, discussed, and fought for many years before. The latter part of those years is what motivated the violent solution – the differences between the North and South culminating and exploding during the acceptance of the Kansas-Nebraska Act. For the parties involved, a battle was the only way to decide the fate of equality in the nation. 

The divisions between the Northern states, Southern states, border states, and those not organized in the battle. 

Insight: The Age of Jackson (Chapter 4)

The election of 1824 was between four candidates: John Quincy Adams, John C. Calhoun, Henry Clay, and Andrew Jackson. The winner ended up being Jackson, his reign would bring upon a list of events, the majority far more dull and extremist than positive.

            Adams and Clay argued that government power should be used to promote economic development. Out of all four candidates, Jackson was the wild card – he was a wealthy plantation owner, and his fame rested on his military exploits like his victory at New Orleans. Yet, the House of Representatives had to choose a president from among the top go getters, which left Jackson and Adams as main rivals. Adams won for a majority of votes. However, a large part of the American population believed this had been won in a corrupt manner and Jackson planned to win on the next election.

            The election of 1828 was between the National Republicans (Adams and Clay) and the Jacksonian Republicans (Andrew Jackson) – their faceoff was called the second American party system. A faceoff won by Andrew Jackson.

            Andrew Jackson defended the spoil system, which was based on the belief that any intelligent person could perform the duties required in any government position – which made it fair for acquaintances of Jackson to take on these positions based solely on the fact that he knew them. And Jackson also defended the fact that economic issues should not be a priority for the government. He had a deep hatred towards banks, and decided to close the National Bank. Even when the congress passed a motion to avoid this from occurring, Jackson vetoed the decision and continued with its closure.

            The nullification crisis was an event that was managed during Jackson’s presidency. Here, there was a conflict due to tariffs – manufacturers in the South were not in favor of the high tax import in order to encourage manufacturing within the United States, for this mostly favored northerners in profit. Jackson’s solution was the Force Bill – which compelled the state of South Carolina to collect tariff act duties or else troops would be sent. However, Henry Clay opted for a compromise the annulled the Nullification Act and the Force Bill.

            Jackson also used his power to relocate the position of a large number of Native American tribes – he had a prejudice towards them and believed that they would prevent white people from moving west and opening up land for cotton production. They were forced to march west in what was called the Trail of Tears, in which one of every four Cherokees died due to the voyage’s conditions. Furthermore, the money promised to the Cherokees for relocating was short, instead of being given nine million, they were giving six.

            After two terms, Jackson left office. Behind him he left a war on banks, the trail of tears, evidence of a nullification conflict, and his belief upon a spoil system. Certainly a memorable president, whether for good or bad, is entirely subjective.

An image of Andrew Jackson 

Insight: Sectional Divisions Arise (Chapter 4)

            A nation will grow to a point in which sections start to become noticeable. Sections being defined as regions distinguished from one another by economic and cultural differences – in America, these were the North and the South. The north was made of the Northeast and the Old Northwest, while the South had no inner divisions.

            The Old Northwest was very large on farming, mainly crops and animals and their byproducts – however, they also created products such as whiskey.  The market for these products expanded thanks to river transportation to New Orleans and the Caribbean and the Eastern United States, and grew even more when canals were created. In the Northeast people were divided between those who still lived on farms and those who had gone to seek a job. This included women, who usually worked on windmills for they could be persuaded to work for half of the pay that a man would usually receive – a chauvinistic deal that they ignored happily, for they were earning their own money before being wed.

 Cities in the Northeast and Northwest developed due to the desire for jobs, a lot of migration took place. These cities, due to overcrowding, were lacking in sanitation and life conditions. Furthermore, those who did find jobs clashed with the owners of factories, for capitalism overshadowed the workers’ rights – leading to strikes and revolts.

The South’s primary products were cotton, tobacco, sugar, rice, and slaves. They did not develop as many towns and industries as the Northern colonies did, the region remained one of farms and open rural areas. They did have a small number of cities, however, which were rather large as the northern cities.

The slavery system supplied the labor for most of the crops in the South. Most of the enslaved African Americans lived on the plantations they worked on. Life for them was harsh, treatment was unfair – women had to withstand rape, abuse, taking care of their children, and giving birth; all while attempting to please their owners. Slavery was based on economics, owners exploited slaves to get work done, it was property that performed labor. Sometimes slaves would rebel, but most resistance consisted of small rebellions in daily routines. This slave system is a major separation between the North and the South.

            The sectional division between the North and the South and whatever sections existed between them is still relevant today. For it set the pace of development in which they would be stuck in, results of which are visible in present terms.

Slavers were an economic acquisition for land/plantation owners. 

Insight: Changing Households and New Markets (Chapter 4)

            When a population grows, when a nation grows, there are bound to be changes in the market and its goods. Rather than trading, exchanging goods, people now used cash and credit to obtain their resources – this is called the Market Revolution; introducing entrepreneurs, banks, and knowledge on buying.

            Samuel Slater was one of the creators and definers of what an entrepreneur was to be. He took advantage of the potential of a young, growing nation – the United States was producing more and more cotton to meet the needs of the growing population, and he brought English information on cotton mills and textile factories to create a fortune. For an entrepreneur is one who takes on business risks for the sake of profit, and this individual flourishes in capitalism – which is manufacturing controlled by private corporations and by individuals competing for profit.

            The household economy had ruled previously, in which people’s business was simply based on keeping their households running, it was very individualistic. They didn’t care for wealth, just living comfortably and on their own produce. Work was not a commodity, something to be bought and sold. As time passed, families produced fewer things they needed and instead bought them from stores or other people - this lead to centralizing manufacturing, which increased production.

            The Market Revolution also brought by the importance of banks, for these provided the credit and cash necessary for entrepreneurs to buy land or invest. They first appeared during the 1780’s, and by the 1830’s hundreds of them were placed. They were often started by groups of private investors, who unknowingly fueled the development of American economy. They allowed the loans to buy millions of acres of federal land in the West and other money-making schemes. They caused economic booms, but also, due to their way of acting together, severe depressions.

            Thanks to the Market Revolution: middle-class Americans were cluttered with purchased items, banks consolidated themselves as some of the most powerful and important institutions in society, work became a commodity, and work was centralized. All which, together, allowed for the American economy to flourish and expand.

Samuel Slater: one of the very first entrepreneurs. 

Insight: Life in the New Nation (Chapter 4)

            The political aspect of the building of a new nation is important, but often overshadows the building of the mundane lifestyle of said state, which happens to be just as eventful and relevant as the official actions of the nation. The Trans-Appalachian settlement, the War of 1812, the Missouri Compromise, new technology, and the democratization of religion are some of the happenings during this period’s citizen livelihood.

            The reason why the population of the United States grew is the migration of American citizens to Ohio, Mississippi, Tennessee, and Cumberland River Valleys. This created an increase of population; from 2.7 million to 12 million in only fifty years – the nation was slowly growing, slowly making a bigger name and relevance for themselves. This expansion wasn’t favoring some, though, for the Land Ordinance of 1785 allowed sale of Native American land northwest of the Ohio River, otherwise called the Northwest Territory.

            This created friction between the Native Americans and the centralized government, creating repercussions such as the war of 1812 and resistance. The war of 1812 was triggered by interference of American shipping by British navy and also the support of the British towards the Native Americans. This war included battles such as the Battle of Thames or the Battle of Horseshoe – the two battles that ended the Native American resistance to American expansion to their lands.  

            Slavery was another aspect of their normalcy that became a discussion. The black code kept African Americans under the authority of white Americans even if slavery was illegal. Americans in the early republic agreed that slavery was legal south of the Ohio River and illegal north of it. There was a debate about this, however, for Missouri didn’t lie particularly north or south of said boundary, a debate that led to the Missouri Compromise. In which slavery would be permitted in Missouri, and Maine was carved out of Missouri which was before northern Missouri – and, in Maine, slavery was illegal.

            Technology arrived with the industrial revolution. Amazing improvements such as steam power, canals, and communications such as post offices created a massive improvement in their lifestyles. Not only was there an industrial awakening, but a Second Great awakening – an awakening of evangelization. This movement stressed preaching and predicted a better after life if they were to follow Christ. This movement aided in a sense of community and inclusion of women roles.

            As the laws and politics moved, so did the people. And, as the repercussions of all these events prove, the government depended on the people’s actions as much as the people depended on the government for changes to take place. 

A representation of the Missouri Compromise

Constitutional Convention (Chapter 3)

Experiencing scenarios for the first time are, by nature, a trial and error type of subject. If you fail or find yourself in a losing position, more often than not, it will be perceived as a learning experience and enhance future situations similar to it. However, there are other topics, other places in which failure is too detrimental to be an option. The creation of the constitution was exactly this for the American delegates in 1787. The constitutional convention was a mission to rescue and hopefully edify the government, thought by them to be failing, as effectively as it was possible. And, as obvious as circumstances like this may indicate, the journey to the constitution was not an easy one. The convention was divided, congresses had to be created, federalists and anti-federalists’ conflict became a large issue; making delegates skeptical about approving the ideas for their new government. But ultimately, convinced enough, and created the pathway to a new nation.

A crucial individual to this period, famously known as the Father of the Constitution is James Madison. Madison believed in the cynic nature of humans, yet he was hopeful in the purpose and need for a stable government. He assisted every meeting the convention held- constantly and very vocally expressing his ideas, thoughts, and critique. Him and fellow thinkers brought upon the Virginia Plan.

As nearly any topic of interest in the world, the convention became divided. The biggest division being that between the supporters of the Virginia Plan and the supporters of the New Jersey Plan. The Virginia Plan called for the creation of a bicameral legislature, representatives in proportion to the number of citizens in the states, executive and judicial branches, and government’s right to tax and veto – all of these majorly favoring larger states. This led the smaller sized states to propose the alternative, the New Jersey Plan. This plan would give congress the power to tax, the creation of executive and judicial branches, and equal number of representatives, and a unicameral congress. Clearly, their differences were concrete – which terminated in the Great Compromise. A compromise between the two plans that consisted of two houses that made up a legislative branch – one that had equal number of representatives per state (House of Representatives) and the other that based the number of representatives off they population number (Senate). The compromise also addressed slave involvement as somewhat relevant in the Three-Fifths Compromise.

It was then settled that the constitution called for a separation of powers, which led to the system of checks and balances. The system allowed for a government that both preserved and limited popular sovereignty. The legislative, judicial, and executive branches sustained and controlled each other. They went further and created the electoral college - a meeting of electors in which a vote would be made to decide who the president would be – settling democracy even more.

The constitution had both supporters and opponents. The supporters went by the name of federalists, while their contrasts were the anti-federalists. The leaders of the federalists included Washington and Hamilton. The federalists believed that the federal government would work as a government by the people and for the people – one that was strong and energetic as the citizens required. The anti-federalists were against the creation of a government, for they considered this authority a copy of the monarchy they had to endure before their independence.

The tedious job of perfecting and creating a congress to rule a new nation and its people was not something that took a quick instant. The convention was long, it had its various arguments on different areas of the laws and regulations that were to put in. From the different suggested plans to the federalists and anti-federalists, creating the constitution was a challenge. A challenge that was finally worth it and appropriate for the United States.

                                  

James Madison, the father of the constitution.

                

American Revolution (Chapter 2)

The American Revolution

By: Sachi Kameishi

           

Independence, freedom, and rights – all privileges, for lack of a better word, that every human being should be able to own. Sounds like a rather blatantly  obvious statement, doesn’t it? At least in our modern world, a lack of independence is indicative of a lack of justice and morality and ever present bigotry. In the past, colonialism could very much be synonymous with this. Some were oblivious to this, due to the cynical nature of one being, in this case nation, superior to another. However, oppressed voices never quite fall in invisibility. The American Revolution and the War for Independence are archetypes of this fact. Fueled by sundry causes against the British, the colonialists lashed out and began their historic fight for freedom. Once free, however, their new republic, their new states, how to guide them – would prove an even bigger task than that of gaining their independence.

            The thirteen British colonies of America were subject to the “Mother country’s” every command. As a British colony these all received protection from the crown, as seen in the 7 Years War. However, this was massively overshadowed by the preposterous British economic and political abuse endured by the states. Examples of Acts and Laws passed by the British King George III that stirred the people in a foreplay manner for the upcoming revolution are the following: The Stamp Act, the Quartering Act, the Townshend Duties, the Tea Act, and the Port Bill. All of these including heavy taxation and patronizing towards the colonies. These encouraged a sense of unity against the British rule, the spread of democratic ideas, rebellion and congresses, held to discuss options; and the most crucial patriotic congress, being the Continental Congress, lead to the zenith of actions taken to become separated from the crown: the Declaration of Independence written by Thomas Jefferson, who brilliantly connected their need for freedom with the basic, innate rights of man. July 4^th, all 13 colonies accepted this document’s validity and officially became the United States of America in their own eyes, for it still had to be won.

            The War for Independence holds an amount of characteristics that make it very relevant. There’s the fact that it took eight violent years to cut ties with the British, which makes it the second longest war in the history of the United States. As well as the fact that the population in the colonies were very much divided in who to support – estimated that one third were Patriots, one third were Loyalists, and one third were neither. The Patriots also searched for military support overseas from nations who had Britain as a common enemy – France and Germany. Individuals such as French officer Marquis de Lafayette, Prussian officer Baron Von Steuben and the armies of thousands of men they carried were crucial for the States’ troops’ organization, training, and ultimately, their victory.

            Once becoming the United States officially, government was something they were yet to settle. In fact, back then, they believed that the nation as a whole was less important than its thirteen parts. It was not a nation as much as it was a confederation, or an alliance of states. Moving quickly to create organization in the colonies, the Continental Congress created a set of laws called the Articles of Confederation. These articles combined the functions of a legislative and executive branch, for they passed laws and made sure to keep them steady by enforcing them. However and naturally given the context of their history, problems arose with these articles. Some of these being: regardless of the state’s size they only had one vote, the congress was powerless to impose taxes or duties, no separate executive to enforce acts of congress, no national court system to interpret laws, and amendment only with consent of all the states. Furthermore, the representatives served in a unicameral legislature – in which there is only one house or group of representatives. Giving no balance to the power as there would in a bicameral legislature. This created tension between Nationalists and those in favor of the articles, for there was no real way to fathom a free nation with a general, central power.

            Achieving a sovereign, independent nation was something that was probably not even in the range of possibilities of most then-Americans. However, it took a few events to trigger that nationalism, that desire for change and recognition of what they all knew they deserved. Through physical and mental strive and motivation, they made it. And once having it, they had to ponder upon the fact that they had to find a way to be united – to survive on their own. This, as well, brought upon conflict, conflict that took time to be resolved. However, their journey to becoming one of the most powerful nations in the world had commenced, but was still underway.

John Adams, one of the leaders of the Revolution. 

The Aftermath of the Colonization (Chapter 1)

            The European colonization of America was, and still is, one of the most relevant and condition-altering events. However, most focus on the aftermath of the colonizers’ arrival; not enough on the situation of the societies involved previous to it or the early settlement days. By neglecting this, valuable information and events are ignored as well. For prior to the colonies, the American, African, and European worlds were doing rather well and striving within each of their own environments. History then proceeds to their colliding, then to colonization, and then a series of events that served as obstacles to the European’s arrival and settling.

            Commencing this event’s history, there are those who were living in America. As vast as the list of Native American societies is, it may be surprising to know that these all share similar core values and fundamental behavior. Some of these characteristics involved the following: social needs fulfilled through family, extended kinship networks, fate decided by the doing (or not doing) of traditional rituals, and the belief that people were entitled to use land but never to own it. Native Americans also understood the benefit of trade, not only referring to the direct gain of product, but also the underlying present of hospitality and friendliness between different groups.

            Next, of course, is the European society. The European nations were organized in a system of duties and exchanges based on land, war, and tradition. In other words, feudalism was the basis for their society. The success behind feudalism also lies on the support it received from religion, which was mainly Christian at the time. Religion, in fact, also stands behind the fact that Europeans were so very obsessed with exotic items and produce; after the Europeans involved with the Crusades brought home Asian products, the European demand for these grew rapidly. This led to the creation of jobs such as merchants and craftspeople – however, unlike Native Americans; trade for Europeans was nothing more than an exchange, not a tie to social obligations to others. This fascination and desire for Asian produce led to the Age of Discovery, whose main purpose was to find a faster route to the Asian territory. Instead, America was discovered by them.

            And finally, the African Kingdoms. In Africa, in the north of the Congo River, was a long swath called Guinea – this was the center of all trade between Europeans and Africans. In Guinea, there was a lineage that was the ruling class. Most societies were made up of people who lived in towns and supported themselves primarily through farming. Again, most people in Guinea belonged to the same lineage. However, the groups in Guinea varied their religious beliefs – yet they all generally coincided on the existence of one Supreme being and other, lesser powerful, deities. Also, they believed in the existence of spirits before and after the decease of a person. And then there was the Empire of Songhai, one of the largest at the time situated in the Sahara. Traders could find gold and ivory from the forest kingdoms, also salt, cloth, weapons, horses, and books. And another good Europeans collected from Africa were human slaves, however this type of slavery was far more humane than the one practiced in years to come, in fact, some slaves saw it as a productive opportunity.

            As said before the collision of these cultures increased the desire for trade and faster ways for their transfer to Europe. When America was find looking for one of these new, more efficient pathways, Europeans decided to commence colonies and send settlements to these areas. However, things were not going to go smoothly. The Spanish, for example, found resistance from New Mexican Native Americans in the Revolt of 1680, which was won by the Native Americans – however, the Spanish returned. Yet, not all was in vain, for the return of the Spanish was established on a commitment that favored both the Spanish and the Pueblo inhabitants equally. Another resistance the European settlers confronted was the Native American community in Chesapaeke Bay, which also ended in a compromise between the two sides.

            These colonies also witnessed the beginning of Tobacco plantations and colonies placed in Virginia to work the fields – of course, those who worked the fields were the slaves. Slaves first arrived at these colonies during the year 1907. Also, the presence of Puritans and their conflict with King Phillip was quite a rumble – for the Puritans were making the land of America far too different to what Phillip wanted – very negatively so. SO, Phillip rallied up Native Americans to fight against the Puritans and protect that land. However, after plenty of casualties and historic bloodshed, the Puritans won. Which is also connected with religious conflict between the colonies.

The three societies described had a role in the colonization of America and its success. However, the results and events that followed it did not have such a smooth and well-constructed nature. Events such as slavery, conflicting settlements with natives, and settlements versus England prove it so. Yet, without them, there wouldn’t be half as much history as there is.
The Revolt of 1860